Effects of Olfaction and Pheromones | Literature Review

Effects of Olfaction and Pheromones | Literature Review Abstract: A favorable scent goes a long way. An odor or fragrance (commonly referred to as a smell) is caused by one or more volatilized  chemical compounds, generally at a very low concentration, that humans or other animals perceive by the  sense  of  olfaction. Odors are also commonly called scents, which can refer to both pleasant and unpleasant odors. Scent plays a very important role in our lives. A pheromone is a secreted or excreted  chemical  factor that triggers a social response in members of the same  species. A survey of sample size 30 college students was conducted to find out if scent did attract attention or not. Keywords: Olfaction, human pheromones, MHC genes Introduction: Want to boost your mood or stir up old memories? Just use your nose. And, most important, scent can even drive one to romantic distraction. Think of your partners pajamas. Indeed, the nose can suss out something as complex as sexual compatibility. The terms fragrance and aroma are used primarily by the food and cosmetic industry to describe a pleasant odor, and are sometimes used to refer to  perfumes. In contrast, malodor, stench, reek, and stink are used specifically to describe unpleasant odor. In the  United Kingdom, odour refers to scents in general. In the United States, odor has a more negative connotation, such as smell, stench or stink, while scent or aromas are used for pleasant smells. Research has shown that certain human body odors are connected to human sexual attraction. Both fluctuating asymmetry (FA) and the human leukocyte antigen (HLA) are connected to scent. Review of literature: OLFACTION Olfaction or olfactory perception is the  sense  of smell. Many vertebrates, including most mammals and reptiles, have two distinct olfactory systems—the main olfactory system, and the accessory olfactory system which is mainly used to detect pheromones. In female humans, the sense of olfaction is strongest around the time of ovulation, significantly stronger than during other phases of the menstrual cycle and also stronger than the sense in males. The MHC genes (known as HLA in humans) are a group of genes present in many animals and important for the immune system; in general, offspring from parents with differing MHC genes have a stronger immune system. Fish, mice and female humans are able to smell some aspect of the MHC genes of potential sex partners and prefer partners with MHC genes different from their own. Humans can detect individuals that are blood-related kin (mothers/fathers and children but not husbands and wives) from olfaction. The ability to identify odors varies among people and decreases with age. Studies show there are sex differences in odor discrimination; women usually outperform males. Pregnant women also have increased smell sensitivity, sometimes resulting in abnormal taste and smell perceptions, leading to food cravings or aversions. Olfactory Reference Syndrome (ORS) is a condition in which those affected have an excessive preoccupation with the concern that body odor may be foul or, on a good day, unpleasant. HUMAN PHEROMONES A pheromone is a secreted or excreted  chemical  factor that triggers a social response in members of the same  species. Pheromones are chemicals capable of acting outside the body of the secreting individual to impact the behavior of the receiving individual. While humans are highly dependent upon visual cues, when in close proximity smells also play a big role in sociosexual behaviors. There is an inherent difficulty in studying human pheromones because of the need for cleanliness and odorlessness in human participants. The focus of the experiments on human pheromones has been on three classes of putative pheromones: axillary steroids, vaginal aliphatic acids, and stimulators of the  vomeronasal organ. Pheromones have been demonstrated clearly in other species, but their existence and ability to affect humans is still under debate. Several studies have been conducted that have reached different conclusions, but some pheromone effects seen in other mammals are definitely present in humans. Most studies have found that human sweat or putative pheromones increase physiological arousal, one way or another. This idea that something we cant even consciously smell is affecting our behavior is horrifying to some people, but in reality we are controlled by the combination of all our senses! Gustav Jà ¤ger (1832-1917), a German doctor and hygienist is thought to be the first scientist to put forward the idea of human pheromones. He called the manthropines. He said they were lipophilic compounds associated with skin and follicles that mark the individual signature of human odors. Lipophilic compounds are those that tend to combine with, or are capable of dissolving in lipids. Researchers in the University of Chicago claimed that they managed to link the synchronization of womens menstrual cycles to unconscious odor cues. The head researcher was called Martha McClintock, hence the coined termthe McClintock effect. When exposing a group of women to a whiff of sweat from other women, their menstrual cycles either accelerated or slowed down; depending on when during the menstrual cycle the sweat was collected before, during or after ovulation. The scientists said that the pheromone collected before ovulation shortened the ovarian cycle, while the pheromone collected during ovulation lengthened it. Even so, recent analyses of McClintocks study and methodology have questioned its validity. There are four principal kinds of pheromones: Releaser pheromones they elicit an immediate response, the response is rapid and reliable. They are usually linked to sexual attraction. Primer pheromones these take longer to get a response. They can, for example, influence the development or reproduction  physiology, including menstrual cycles in females,  puberty, and the success or failure of pregnancy. Signaler pheromones these provide information. They may help the mother to recognize her newborn by scent (fathers cannot usually do this). Modulator pheromones they can either alter or synchronize bodily functions. Usually found in sweat. There are differences between men and women in the types of glands, secretions and even microbial flora present in the axillary environment, suggesting a sex-specific role. Most of these glands do not become active until after puberty, suggesting a role in sexual communication. (Hays, 2003) Pheromone-like compounds are also found in salivary, seminal and urine secretions, but studies tend to focus on the most accessible: axillary sweat. Jacob (2000, 2001) found increased physiological effects, only noticed a positive increase in mood and increased arousal in women when the test administrator present was male. Men were unaffected by the sex of the tester, but had slightly less effects than females overall. They concluded that pheromones are incredibly context dependent. Humans must integrate many different brain functions to affect arousal and mood. Psychologists Rachel Herz and Estelle Campenni were just getting to know each other, swapping stories about their lives over coffee, when Campenni confided something unexpected: She was living proof, she said, of love at first smell. I knew I would marry my husband the minute I smelled him, she told Herz. Ive always been into smell, but this was different; he really smelled good to me. His scent made me feel safe and at the same time turned on—and Im talking about his real body smell, not cologne or soap. Id never felt like that from a mans smell before. Weve been married for eight years now and have three kids, and his smell is always very sexy to me. RESEARCH In the now famous T-shirt experiments it was shown that specific women chose as most sexy and pleasant smelling T-shirts belonging to men who had immune systems that were different from their own. Because we all possess different MHC genes (and body-odor), for every woman a different set of men will be delicious smelling and others wont be. Theres no Brad Pitt of body odor! A womans nose not only responds to a mans body-odor in terms of his biological suitability, women actually find how a man smells to be the most important factor in their sexual attraction. In two large studies were conducted to examine how important various physical and social status factors were for men and women when choosing a sexual partner, we discovered that above all other physical characteristics, women ranked a mans scent as the most important feature for determining whether she would be sexually interested in him. How a man smelled was also more much important than any social status factor. And of all physical characteristics women preferred a man to be better than average in his body-odor than anything else. Women also found men who smelled great due to the fragrance they wore irresistible. In the words of one respondent: If Im with a guy who smells really good, nothing else about him seems to matter. Among heterosexual couples, similar MHC profiles spell relational difficulty, Christine Garver-Apgar, a psychologist at the University of New Mexico, has found. As the proportion of MHC alleles increased, womens sexual responsiveness to their partners decreased, and their number of sex partners outside the relationship increased, Garver-Apgar reports. The number of MHC genes couples shared corresponded directly with the likelihood that they would cheat on one another; if a man and woman had 50 percent of their MHC alleles in common, the woman had a 50 percent chance of sleeping with another man behind her partners back. You encounter a particular smell, and it immediately transports you back to an earlier time and to a pleasant memory. A recent feature in the Association of Psychological Sciences’ Observer discusses the connection. Researchers have discovered that there is a strong connection between smells, emotions and early life experiences. In fact, there is a strong relationship between certain smells experienced very early in life, typically before age 5, that will trigger pleasant feelings and memories. This is particularly true for odors that we don’t smell every day. The reason for these associations is that the brain’s olfactory bulb is connected to both the amygdala (an emotion center) and to the hippocampus, which is involved in memory. And, because smells serve a survival function (odors can keep us from eating spoiled or poisonous foods), some of these associations are made very quickly, and may even involve a one-time association. But even in adulthood, we can easily make associations between smells and memories. You might draw a connection between a certain perfume or cologne and a first encounter with a friend or lover, or the scent of a certain food may transport you back to the first time you ate it. Among heterosexual couples, similar MHC profiles spell relational difficulty, Christine Garver-Apgar, a psychologist at the University of New Mexico, has found. As the proportion of MHC alleles increased, womens sexual responsiveness to their partners decreased, and their number of sex partners outside the relationship increased, Garver-Apgar reports. The number of MHC genes couples shared corresponded directly with the likelihood that they would cheat on one another; if a man and woman had 50 percent of their MHC alleles in common, the woman had a 50 percent chance of sleeping with another man behind her partners back. SURVEY A survey was conducted. The hypothesis was â€Å"Scent Attracts Attention†. A sample of 30 teenagers from the age 17-21 out of which 15 were females and 15 were males. Each one of them a questionnaire consisting of 17 questions. Some questions were ranged from 1- 5 and some were yes, no or may be. All the questions were given a score and accordingly the score was found out. The following were the questions given to the subjects. QUESTIONNAIRE Q1. How likely are you to initiate a conversation with a stranger on the basis of good fragrance that he/she is wearing? Very unlikely Very likely 1 2 3 4 5 Q2. How likely are you to avoid having a conversation if the other person has a bad breath? Very unlikely Very likely 1 2 3 4 5 Q3. Is good fragrance an important factor in framing first impression? Yes No Q4. Would you consider going for an aroma therapy? Yes No Q5. Do advertisements about perfumes or deodorants urge you to buy them? Yes No Q6. Have you ever been attracted to a person because of the way they smell? Yes No May be Q7. Do you feel that putting an external fragrance affects your self-esteem? Yes No May be Q8. What do you prefer, natural body odour or external fragrance? Natural odour or External fragrance Q9. Do you feel men and women have different body odours? Yes No May be Q10. Have you ever purchased body fragrances in order to improve your interpersonal relationship? Yes No Q11. How conscious are you about your body odour and its impact? Very unconscious Very conscious 1 2 3 4 5 Q12. Does deodorant/perfume attract people? Yes No Q13. How frequently do you use deodorants/perfume in a day? Never Once twice every few hours Q14. While travelling, can you tolerate other people’s body odour? Yes No Q15. Would you ever use external fragrances as a substitute to showering? Yes No Sometimes Q16. Do you buy soaps, body wash or talcum powder to help you enhance your body odour? Yes No May be Q17. Would you use gender specific deodorants/perfumes? Yes No QUESTIONNAIRE SCORING Q1. How likely are you to initiate a conversation with a stranger on the basis of good fragrance that he/she is wearing? Very unlikely Very likely 1 2 3 4 5 Q2. How likely are you to avoid having a conversation if the other person has a bad breath? Very unlikely Very likely 1 2 3 4 5 Q3. Is good fragrance an important factor in framing first impression? Yes (5) No (1) Q4. Would you consider going for an aroma therapy? Yes (5) No (1) Q5. Do advertisements about perfumes or deodorants urge you to buy them? Yes (5) No (1) Q6. Have you ever been attracted to a person because of the way they smell? Yes (5) No (1) May be (3) Q7. Do you feel that putting an external fragrance affects your self-esteem? Yes (5) No (1) May be (3) Q8. What do you prefer, natural body odour or external fragrance? Natural odour (1) or External fragrance (5) Q9. Do you feel men and women have different body odours? Yes (5) No (1) May be (3) Q10. Have you ever purchased body fragrances in order to improve your interpersonal relationship? Yes (5) No (1) Q11. How conscious are you about your body odour and its impact? Very unconscious Very conscious 1 2 3 4 5 Q12. Does deodorant/perfume attract people? Yes (5) No (1) Q13. How frequently do you use deodorants/perfume in a day? Never (1) Once (2) twice (3) every few hours (5) Q14. While travelling, can you tolerate other people’s body odour? Yes (1) No (5) Q15. Would you ever use external fragrances as a substitute to showering? Yes (5) No (1) Sometimes (3) Q16. Do you buy soaps, body wash or talcum powder to help you enhance your body odour? Yes (5) No (1) May be (3) Q17. Would you use gender specific deodorants/perfumes? Yes (5) No (1) Classification done according to the scores is the following: 17-34: Not attracted to scent at all 35-52: A little attracted towards scent 53-70: Moderate attraction towards to scent 71-85: High attraction towards scent The total score of females was 767. The total score of males was 792. The total score was 1559. The highest score one could get was 85. The lowest score one could get was 17. The highest total score could be 2550. The lowest total score could be 510. TOTAL No attraction towards scent: 0 A little attracted towards scent: 16 Moderate attraction towards to scent: 12 High attraction towards scent: 2 The conclusion of the survey was that there is little or moderate attraction towards scent. The hypothesis was proved correct, scent does attract attention. Males are attracted to scent more than females. References: www.psychology today.com www.wikipedia.com

Ancient Greek Olympics :: essays research papers

Ancient Greek Olympics Reporting today's Olympic games is like a technological masterpiece. The athletes compete in many events, their times and scores are tallied and sent worldwide by satellites and high-tech computers within seconds. Each event is carefully watched and recorded with a sense of history. There was no such sense of history or records when the first Games began in Ancient Greece. The first recorded champion in Greece was a sprinter, Coroebus, he was a cook in a near by Greek city called, Elis. He ran naked on a sanded course in front of thousands of spectators. The course was about 630 feet long "or one stad-from which the word stadium was derived." His victory won him a wreath of olive leaves. That was in 776 BC and this year became very important to later Greek Historians. In 300 BC all time was dated by Olympiads, a time span of four years between the games. The Olympiad began with the first recorded foot race. As far back in Greek time as anyone can remember, the human body was a very beautiful thing. "A body of a man had glory, as well as his mind, that both needed discipline, and by that such discipline men best honored Zeus." From time to time the Greeks held ceremonies of Games in honor of their god Zeus. They held these ceremonies for the areas in which they took place. These places were, Pythian, Isthmian, Nemeam, and of course, Olympian. The Olympian games go back to the time of the first people to live in the valley of Alpheas River. There in Elis, in the western Peloponnesus was Olympia, "the fairest spot in Greece." This land was filled with beauty and snowcapped mountains. This area was a perfect spot for the ceremonies held every four years, for Zeus. In 1875, the most important ruins of Ancient Greece were uncovered. One important ruin that was discovered was the temple of Zeus, that was in use about 2,500 years ago. Near it was the temple for his wife, Hera that was even older. It was used about 2,900 years ago. Another important discovery was the finding of the statue of Hermes. Hermes was sculpted by the Praxiteles. This statue was found in the Hera's Temple. Contained in the Temple of Zeus was one of the Seven Wonders of the World, it was a statue of Zeus sitting on his throne, it was larger then a two-story house. This great masterpiece was made by, Phidias, it was made of ivory and gold. Soon everyone wanted to win the favor of their god, Zeus.

Ethnicity and Policing

Ethnicity and the Police Part II Police Brutality and Corruption: New Orleans Police Department By Brittany Jackson Staff Writer BATON ROUGE- New Orleans Police Department is known for its harsh brutality, corruption, discrimination, and deadly force. The issue of citizen complaints has been a controversial concern in New Orleans. The complaints of citizens are generally a racial issue. African American civil groups have commanded civilian evaluation as a way of presenting independent assessments of complaints.Although the New Orleans courts planned to expurgate police corruption and brutality, the unruly behavior has increased. Over the recent years the New Orleans Police Department had a discreditable record for police brutality and many incidents were reported to the department Internal Affairs Division and the Office of Municipal Investigations. Some officers were charged for using excessive force towards victims, sometimes without adequate cause, and some suspects died while in the custody of police. The New Orleans Police Department has a history of police brutality cases including the case of Robert Davis.Robert Davis, a retired elementary school teacher and a resident of New Orleans was detained, arrested, and beaten by four white police officers on October 9, 2005 on notion of public intoxication. Davis was 64 years old at the time of the incident and was charged with public intoxication, resisting arrest, battery, and public intimidation which he pled not guilty to all charges. Upon hearing the charges Davis stated, â€Å"I haven’t had a drink in twenty five years. † The officers were charged with battery and the use of severe force.All officers were released on bond after making an appearance before the judge, pleading not guilty. African American Police Chief Warren Riley stated that he did not believe race was a issue in the beating. Charges against Davis were dropped in April 2006. Robert Evangelist and Lance Schilling were fired for their involvement in the beating. Racial profiling inexplicably targets the African American community for no known investigations and enforcement which leads to a hindrance in community policing endeavors. These actions cause law enforcement to lose trust among the people they are to protect and serve.Many people depend on the police to protect them from violence and exhibit fairness and equality to all communities, yet many people live in fear. I never been in a situation that involved the New Orleans Police department but in my research I find the department to very corrupt. Many of the officers are respectable individuals but the dishonorable officers ruin the reputation for all. Many of the suspects that they victimize are Black individuals who are males. Even though the Police Chief stated that the incident of Robert Davis wasn’t a race issue, I’m for certain that it was.It shouldn’t take four police officers to apprehend one suspect and to make matters w orse, two of the officers were pinning Mr. Davis down to accommodate the beating. More people should stand up for what they believe in to prevent racism from happening. In New Orleans, most citizens of the African American community live in fear because they know how corrupt the New Orleans Police Department is. If more people come together and protest about racism, brutality, and corruption a change will be brought forth. The New Orleans Police Department has always been known for their corruptive acts.Many of the officers target the African American communities and victimized individual for their own personal reasons. It is real clear the corruption of the police department is only getting worst being that no one of higher authority isn’t taking on an improved way to handle these violent acts. New Orleans has the most brutality cases in the United States due ethnicity issues, and discrimination. African American citizens of New Orleans can’t depend on the police to p rotect them if they don’t trust the police or have fear.

Essay The Power of Secret Sin in The Scarlet Letter

The Power of Secret Sin in The Scarlet Letter One of the main themes in The Scarlet Letter is that of the secret. The plot of the book is centered on Hester Prynne’s secret sin of adultery. Nathaniel Hawthorne draws striking parallelism between secrets held and the physical and mental states of those who hold them. The Scarlet Letter demonstrates that a secret or feeling kept within slowly engulfs and destroys the soul such as Dimmesdale’s sin of hypocrisy and Chillingworth’s sin of vengeance, while a secret made public, such as Prynne’s adultery, can allow a soul to recover and even strengthen. When a secret is hidden inside it can engulf and even destroy a person. Arthur Dimmesdale, a revered young minister in†¦show more content†¦The same platform or scaffold, black and weather-stained with the storm or sunshine of seven long years, and footworn, too, with the tread of many culprits who had since ascended it, remained standing beneath the balcony of the meeting-house. The minister went up the steps. This sounds like a quote or a paraphrase and it should be cited with the name of the author and the page number. Dimmesdale’s increasingly enervated physical condition is evident through his eyes, which show â€Å"a world of pain in their troubled and melancholy depths,† As years go by, the minister is inundated with guilt, to the point that he is physically deteriorating. All the while giving phenomenal sermons and regarded as a pillar of the community, internally, Dimmesdale could not feel worse. Dimmesdale’s pain was obviously the result of his concealed sins. The sins you commit and keep secret cause great anguish to the soul and eventually they begin to take over human life. In addition, a sin or secret that goes unacknowledged and unrevealed can cause a cycle of vengeance and further sin. Such an example of feelings kept secret ruining a life is the secret of Roger Chillingworth. He is the husband of Hester Prynne and is thought by the townsfolk to be dead at sea. He returns in hopes of surprising his wife and living a happy life together only to find his wifeShow MoreRelatedThe Scarlet Letter, by Nathaniel Hawthorne Essay879 Words   |  4 Pagesevil and sin so a jail was needed to keep evil people and influence away from society. Hawthorne’s beliefs are seen in The Scarlet Letter. The reoccurring theme of â€Å"the power of blackness† and the uneven balance of transcendental and puritan views are apparent throughout the novel. â€Å"The power of blackness† brings out the sin and the worst in all of us including the people we least expect to be evil. 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The theme of sin and guilt is present throughout The Scarlet Letter in the charactersRead MoreTheme Of Guilt In The Scarlet Letter820 Words   |  4 Pagesnovel The Scarlet Letter was written in 1850. Throughout this novel, Hawthorne explores many different types of themes. In his novel, The Scarlet Letter, Nathaniel Hawthorne uses symbolism of The Scarlet Letter, Pearl, and the Leech to contribute to t he overall theme of guilt. To begin with, Hawthorne uses the scarlet letter â€Å"A† to contribute to the theme of Guilt. The townspeople no longer see a beautiful woman Hester Prynne, the protagonist of this story, the same way before her sin. They see nothing